In the case of “high risk” employment positions (particularly in law enforcement, public safety, and criminal justice professions), personal life history information forms the foundation for a comprehensive background investigation. The results of these investigations typically are used to evaluate the employment suitability of a given candidate. As such, the completion (by the applicant) of an instrument used to gather this history is the first step of most pre-employment background investigations.
The complex personal history information that provides the basis for this background investigation must be organized, exhaustively investigated, and objectively evaluated. However, accurate, efficient and objective evaluation of background information can be difficult to accomplish because the data is lengthy, and the quality of available investigative resources is usually limited since applicant background investigations must, necessarily, receive lower organizational priority than urgent law enforcement investigations. Nonetheless, even when data is well organized, and adequate investigative resources (time, talent, and priority) are invested, it is still difficult to objectively compare and evaluate these findings.
Biodata, as that term is used herein, are specific life events, sometimes referred to as critical items, derived from various personal history domains, such as employment, military, legal and substance use. The biodata for each personal history domain are then assigned numerical values. Scientific research has demonstrated that these values, considered in aggregate, are predictive of specific job dysfunctions in law enforcement officers (e.g. Sarchione, Cuttler, Muchinsky, and Nelson; 1998). Therefore, analyzing personal history data can be an effective means of evaluating applicants for employment. Acquiring this information in an accurate and efficient manner, however, is a tedious and often cumbersome process.
There are several ways to develop biodata from personal history questionnaires. One common way is to develop a series of objective questions (“true/false,” “yes/no,” multiple choice, and/or range-related questions), and assemble these items in a specific questionnaire that yields biodata scores. This is sometimes referred to as “objective scoring.” In contrast, some questionnaires use open-ended questions that require a descriptive answer (for example, “Compared to your peers, how well did you do in school?”) that is then scored by a reader. This is sometimes referred to as “subjective scoring.” Both approaches, however, have shortcomings in an employment selection setting.
Accurate derivation of biodata from an objectively scored questionnaire is dependent upon the applicant's interpretation of a given question. Because of the applicants' “response set” to negative life events, the applicant may misinterpret the meaning of a question. The term “response set” is a psychometric concept referring to the “attitude” with which an individual completes a test, questionnaire, or screening instrument. It is generally accepted that the “response set” adopted by an employment applicant is reflected in what is called a “positive bias” towards description of life events, particularly if these events are negative. In other words, it is expected that employment applicants will attempt to portray themselves in as positive a light as possible in order to be viewed favorably in the selection process.
For example, an employment applicant might indicate “no” to the question “have you ever been fired, terminated, or asked to leave a job under negative circumstance”. However, upon interview he/she may state: “I simply thought it was best to leave after my cash register came up short and the boss held me responsible.” In this case a biodata value for “job termination” should be calculated. However, based on the applicant's response to an “objective” questionnaire, it would not be scored. Because of these phenomena, many objectively scored biodata instruments are found to be inaccurate upon interview and/or background investigation and are considered to be reliable only upon confirmation by personal interview. Hence, the utility of such objectively scored personal history questionnaires as an initial screener for large groups of applicants is limited.
Subjective scoring is less obvious to the applicant, and thus, less susceptible to response set biases, and also has the advantage of allowing the evaluator, rather than the applicant, to interpret specific events and assign biodata scoring points. In addition, researchers have typically found high levels of inter rater reliability when biodata is derived in this fashion. Unfortunately, this is also a rather tedious and time-consuming task. The information needed to make the fine distinctions necessary for accurate assignment of biodata values is usually spread out among several pages (sometimes, several volumes) of personal history information, and occasionally important points are overlooked, rendering this approach less practical for large groups of applicants.
In addition, conventional biodata questionnaires have been constructed in a manner similar to psychological tests and, as such, have the same vulnerability to error. These questionnaires are typically designed by identifying psychological constructs, such as cognitive abilities, personality traits, attitudes and values. These psychological constructs are thought to be predictive of job traits for a certain broad class of jobs (e.g., sales), such as conscientiousness, decision-making ability, interpersonal flexibility and empathy. Specific life history questions are then rationally linked by experts to these constructs. The resultant biodata values are then calculated in terms of scores on these constructs. Finally, the individual's suitability is described in terms of the degree to which his/her scores approximates those associated with good or bad job performance within a job classification.
Similar to psychological tests, the accuracy of these job performance predictions (based on psychological construct scores derived from biodata) are dependent on the degree to which the various constructs are predictive of the job-related outcome in question, as well as the degree to which the job in question is similar to the job for which the constructs were identified. Consequently, the accuracy of construct based biodata questionnaires suffers from the same sources of error as psychological tests. In addition, the questionnaire itself must be redesigned each time the critical components of a job change.
Finally, psychological tests, as well as biodata questionnaires linked to psychological constructs have been criticized as intrusive in regard to personal privacy. Many of the specific test items contained in psychological tests have been challenged on the grounds of invasion of privacy. This can also be true when biodata questionnaires are administered separately from a background investigation.